In the midst of unparalleled global challenges, vulnerable economies have encountered a promising resolution in the form of debt-for-nature swaps. By considering environmental preservation and economic vulnerability, this novel strategy provides a sustainable trajectory for progress.

The diverse ecosystems and abundant natural resources of Africa are indispensable for sustaining development and livelihoods throughout the continent. African ecology, which is acknowledged as vital to the global biosphere, is instrumental in mitigating the effects of climate change. The Congo Basin rainforest, for instance, functions as a substantial carbon sink. However, these services are compromised by human activities such as deforestation and biodiversity loss. The Living Planet Report 2020 by the WWF emphasises a concerning 68% reduction in the populations of African fish, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles between the years 1970 and 2016. Increasing resource demands as a consequence of population expansion and unsustainable consumption have led to these declines. Forest depletion is accelerated by various factors, including land clearance, livestock grazing, industrialization, and dependence on wood fuel. These activities result in the removal of a vital carbon capture source. Africa, despite making negligible contributions to global greenhouse gas emissions, is confronted with severe climate change threats as a result of its impoverished conditions and geographical vulnerability. Fund mobilisation for climate adaptation and ecosystem conservation is vital for sustainable development.

Difficulties in Sustaining Debt in Africa

Without exception, Africa has experienced an unprecedented economic downturn as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The continent underwent an unprecedented recession in 2020, characterised by a decline of more than 2% in gross domestic product (GDP) and a contraction of 10% in nominal GDP per capita. Sub-Saharan Africa, specifically, experienced a decline of 5.3% in real per capita income, regressing to levels not observed since 2013. Despite the expectation of a 3.4% increase in GDP for 2021, Africa is projected to experience the slowest recovery among regions globally, highlighting the enduring consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on the continent. Notwithstanding the continent’s ability to avert extensive infections, Africa’s economy was severely impacted by disruptions in global finance, commerce, and economic operations. The aforementioned disruptions served to worsen pre-existing susceptibilities and undo the advancements achieved with regard to poverty alleviation and development. An estimated 30 million Africans were forced into extreme poverty by the pandemic in 2020; by 2021, an additional 39 million Africans may fall below the poverty line, according to projections. The staggering sum of this number exceeds 465 million individuals, which accounts for more than 34 percent of Africa’s total population.

Late in March 2020, in response to the economic turmoil, senior IMF and World Bank officials issued a joint statement urging all official bilateral creditors to suspend debt payments from IDA countries upon request. The urgent release of $100 billion to bolster fragile health infrastructure and assist the most vulnerable populations was a demand made by African finance ministers to the G20 in support of this initiative. Creditors of the G20 and the Paris Club subsequently reached an agreement to grant eligible nations temporary debt service relief, which included nations eligible for concessional borrowing from IDA and UN Least Developed Countries.

The Debt Service Suspension Initiative (DSSI) granted eligible nations the ability to petition official bilateral creditors for a temporary suspension of their debt service obligations. The originally scheduled termination date of 2020 for the initial forbearance period was prolonged to encompass the conclusion of 2021. Nevertheless, countries that wished to participate in the DSSI were obligated to allocate deferred cash flows towards pandemic response endeavours, reveal public sector expenditures and debts, and restrict non-concessional borrowing in accordance with the policies of the IMF and World Bank.

China’s unprecedented involvement in multilateral debt relief initiatives established a precedent that could be followed in the future with regard to its participation in the Common Framework. DSSI did not involve debt forgiveness, contrary to its name. Instead, participating nations are obligated to repay deferred amounts over a four-year period in a manner that is neutral with respect to net present value. Nevertheless, although private sector creditors were not obligated to participate, there were reports of minimal engagement, with the exception of one official lending agency from China. Additionally, multilateral lenders were omitted in order to protect their AAA ratings.

The African Union implemented the “Green Recovery Action Plan,” a continental strategy spanning five years, in July 2021. This plan primarily addresses the challenges posed by climate change and the recovery from COVID-19. By placing emphasis on climate finance, renewable energy, nature-based solutions, resilient agriculture, and green cities, this strategy seeks to cultivate cooperation between international partners and member states. In addition, a historic allocation of USD 650 billion in Special Drawing Rights (SDR) was authorised by the IMF in August 2021 with the intention of bolstering countries’ reserves and external buffers. However, only a fraction of the initial benefits have been allocated to low-income countries, resulting in an uneven distribution of benefits among nations. Ongoing endeavours are being made to augment voluntary SDR contributions in support of low-income countries.

The IMF intends to establish a new Resilience and Sustainability Trust in October 2022 with the purpose of providing vulnerable nations with long-term financing in an effort to restore balance of payments stability, which has been exacerbated by the pandemic and climate change. In response to the pandemic, a group of African Ministers of Finance has advocated for the on-lending of SDRs to support various initiatives. Although debt relief programmes successfully averted immediate defaults amidst the pandemic, they give rise to apprehensions regarding forthcoming debt servicing responsibilities in the face of sluggish economic expansion. Prior research indicates that debt relief efforts have not consistently resulted in the intended outcomes of improved governance and economic growth, leaving nations unreformed and burdened with debt. At present, the initiative is further hampered by the absence of private sector involvement in the Common Framework, which is restricted to official government-to-government loans.

Transformations and Exchanges of Debt for Nature

Debt-for-nature (DFN) swaps, which link sovereign debt to environmental outcomes, are among the oldest such strategies. Commonly referred to as DFN conversions, these exchanges facilitate the transfer of wealth to middle-income or low-income nations so that they may fund local conservation initiatives. Although this paper does acknowledge the existence of other types of climate and nature-linked debt transactions, its main emphasis is on the examination of DFN swaps. By committing to conservation efforts in lieu of forgiving a portion of a country’s sovereign debt, a DFN swap operates on its fundamental premise. Although these swaps commonly take the form of locally financed conservation funds, they may also encompass policy commitments at a higher level. Debt restructuring may take the form of multi-party arrangements in which existing debt is purchased at a discount by philanthropic entities, reallocating savings towards conservation efforts, or bilateral agreements between creditors and debtors. This adaptable framework enables synergies with other types of debt transactions that are linked to climate change and the environment.

Thomas Lovejoy of the WWF was the first to propose the exchange of restructured debt for environmental outcomes. Conservation International facilitated the first successful DFN swap for Bolivia in 1987. The primary objective was to oversee the exploitation of natural resources while simultaneously attending to the economic requirements of developing nations. Through the strategic utilisation of debt restructuring, developing countries could effectively mobilise funds for domestic conservation initiatives, thereby alleviating the prevailing budgetary constraints. As per the definition provided in the glossary on “Debt and Debt Management and Financial Analysis System” published by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), a debt swap is a method of debt relief wherein the initial value or characteristics of loan instruments are modified. Within the framework of DFN swaps, the debtor nation undertakes environmental action in return for the cancellation of sovereign debt. Cancellation can transpire either through an official bilateral swap facilitated by the creditor or through the acquisition of debt at a reduced price by a donor organisation, frequently a sizable environmental NGO, which subsequently discharges the debt.

Although debt swaps present an opportunity to exchange onerous debt for environmental action, they are not without their inherent difficulties. The primary obstacle that must be addressed is securing the support of a willing creditor in order to finance these results. Bilateral debt negotiations may appear less intimidating, particularly when dealing with Paris Club lenders who have traditionally been receptive to such transactions. In order to fulfil climate and nature financing obligations, bilateral lenders might be more inclined to engage in swaps in the aftermath of the Paris Agreement and COP26. In contrast, commercial creditors might oppose conservation funds operating abroad from incurring financial losses. Instances of distressed debt may offer prospects for immediate cash settlements; however, renegotiating bond or loan terms, even in the pursuit of biodiversity conservation, may have a detrimental impact on a nation’s creditworthiness. This could result in credit rating downgrades and escalated borrowing expenses. Hence, although debt swaps confer advantages to defaulting nations, market-accessible countries may consider alternative financing channels to support environmental and climate initiatives.

By utilising debt-for-nature swaps, sovereign debt restructuring can be synchronised with environmental conservation objectives. Their track record illustrates achievements in allocating resources towards conservation endeavours while simultaneously tackling economic limitations in developing countries. In spite of this, the implementation of DFN swaps is complicated by obstacles such as creditor receptivity and potential effects on creditworthiness. In light of the escalating international endeavours to tackle climate change and biodiversity loss, it continues to be imperative to investigate novel financing mechanisms in order to attain environmentally sustainable results.

Results of Alternative Methods of Linking Sovereign Debt with Climate and Nature

In contrast to the conventional DFN swap model, alternative approaches to associating debt with environmental outcomes have surfaced in recent decades. The aforementioned pattern originated with the European Investment Bank’s first green bond offering in 2007, which was promptly succeeded by the World Bank’s first green bond offering in 2008. While DFN swaps pertain to pre-existing debt, these mechanisms involve the introduction of “new money” instruments. Although the particulars of each instrument may differ significantly, they generally can be categorised into two main classifications: sustainability-linked bonds (SLBs), which integrate contingent debt mechanisms, and traditional sustainable bonds, including green and blue bonds. While SLBs are typically linked to corporate debt markets, the issuance of SLBs in Chile in March 2022 represented a noteworthy deviation from this trend. Comparable to the corporate model, Chile’s SLB framework may be acceptable to an A-rated emerging market issuer. Nevertheless, in light of the green recovery movement, a multitude of international dialogues have examined novel configurations customised for sovereign SLBs.

“Use-of-proceeds” (UoP) bonds are a common term used to refer to conventional sustainable bonds, which include sustainable development goal (SDG), green, blue, and other environmental, social, and governance (ESG) bonds issued with standard new money. These instruments are issued with the understanding that a specified portion of the proceeds will be allocated to a disclosed initiative with the purpose of improving sustainability, as the name suggests. In return for this allocation, bondholders might be required to accept a reduced yield on environmentally friendly instruments. “Greenium” is a common name for this reduction. This framework is exemplified in the SDG bond issued by Benin as part of its sovereign debt in Africa; the yields from this bond are allocated to aid Benin in its efforts to attain the Sustainable Development Goals.

Shortly before the pandemic, SLBs, a more recent innovation than green bonds, entered the corporate bond market. The issuer is able to issue bonds at a rate below the market yield using this framework. SLBs, on the other hand, are tied to one or more sustainability milestones, referred to as key performance indicators (KPIs), rather than specifying the use of proceeds. The ability of the issuer to meet these KPIs by the specified date has an impact on the bond’s financial structure. As generally accepted benchmarks for best practices, issuers generally conform to the voluntary guidelines for corporate SLB issuance that have been published by the International Capital Market Association.

Prospects for the African Development Bank and Africa

Investigating potential methods to link sovereign debt with climate and environmental outcomes, such as DFN swaps, novel financial instruments, or a hybrid approach, offers African nations a multitude of benefits. Numerous nations throughout the continent are renowned for their ecological fragility. Africa, in particular, is home to more than 2.6 million square kilometres of biodiversity areas that hold global significance. Regrettably, a considerable number of these areas remain unprotected (see Economic Indicators below). Concurrently, the continent confronts a significant financial shortfall of around USD 484.6 billion for the subsequent three years in order to facilitate a sustainable recuperation from the COVID-19 pandemic.

In light of the complex requirements of African nations, the implementation of financially linked environmental instruments may prove to be an exceptionally efficacious strategy for concurrently tackling a wide range of challenges. In its capacity as the primary development bank for the African region, the African Development Bank (AfDB) possesses numerous opportunities to participate in these endeavours. These opportunities encompass capacity building, facilitation of processes, credit enhancement for sustainable instruments, involvement in bilateral DFN swaps, and acting as an intermediary or donor for multi-party DFN swaps. As the preeminent institution for regional development, the Bank can provide crucial counsel on these endeavours by assisting Regional Member Countries (RMCs) with capacity-building initiatives while they evaluate the potential benefits of transactions and conduct market analyses to ascertain their viability. Furthermore, in order to facilitate transaction execution, the Bank may serve as the principal liaison for its RMCs, assessing their particular circumstances and cultivating relationships with other partners. In general, initiating any transaction involving sustainable debt requires governments to undertake a multifaceted procedure that requires thorough deliberation and collaboration among ministries throughout seven fundamental stages.